On-demand and MaaS: Setting the Course for Public Transport

The bus industry is in the midst of structural reform. Two trends are setting the agenda: on-demand transport as a flexible supplement to regular services – and Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) as a digital platform for planning, booking, and payment. Neither of these developments is an end in itself, but rather a means of simultaneously increasing reliability, coverage, and cost efficiency in public transport.

On-demand: From project to operational rail

Traditional scheduled services remain the backbone: predictable, high-capacity, economical on main routes. However, during off-peak hours, on the “last mile” and in rural areas, costs arise that can only be solved by on-demand shuttles. The decisive factor is not “either/or,” but hybrid orchestration: regular services as the basic service network, on-demand as an elastic feeder and off-peak layer, embedded in the scheduling and fare logic of the association.

Current examples show the direction:

• Leipzig FLEXA has outgrown its pilot mode and broke the 1 million passenger mark in 2025 – an indication that on-demand can function as a permanent mode of operation. MDV

• In the RMV, the new OnDemand@RMV app bundles demand-oriented services across the entire network; At the same time, the next technological step is underway with KIRA: Level 4 shuttles are being tested as public transport feeders. RMV

• In Berlin, the BVG has established a clearly defined, barrier-free on-demand service with BVG Muva – focusing on people with limited mobility and feeder functions to the network. BVG Muva

• In Hertfordshire, UK, HertsLynx is demonstrating how DRT can effectively serve structurally weak areas with hundreds of virtual stops. HertsLynx

Challenges remain: operational control (pooling algorithms, driver dispatching), interfaces to control centers, fare integration including revenue sharing – and above all, regulation and procurement: on-demand services must be ordered and financed as part of public transport in a legally secure manner, instead of remaining in the gray area between regular and occasional transport.

MaaS: Customer interface determines acceptance

MaaS only scales if buses, trains, and sharing services can be planned, booked, and paid for in one app – including integrated fares and best price logic. Successful examples rely on open interfaces and a clear operator role for the public sector:

• BVG Jelbi bundles public transport and sharing in one app – throughout Berlin with route planning, booking, and payment; five years after its launch, the service is showing stable maturity. JelbiTrafi

• hvv switch in Hamburg integrates ticket purchasing (including Deutschlandticket), MOIA shuttle, car and e-scooter sharing; With hvv Any, account/best-price ticketing via check-in/check-out is becoming standard practice. HVV

LeipzigMOVE combines integrated ticketing, FLEXA booking, and bike/car/e-scooter sharing – a good example of consistent user guidance from a single app provided by the transport authority. LeipzigMOVE

However, these models are not always successful. The Finnish start-up “Whim” had already offered on-demand services to supplement local transport in Helsinki in 2015. But the flat-rate subscription model without deep integration into network tariffs, without clear revenue sharing and without a strong public client is difficult to sustain. As a result, the company had to file for bankruptcy in 2024. For the industry, this is more of a course correction than a swan song: MaaS is here to stay, but with public governance, interoperable standards, and realistic business models. frost.com

Data & standards: Behind-the-scenes work that makes all the difference

Real-time data quality, uniform products (account-based ticketing, best price), and open protocols for sharing integration and travel planning are crucial for operations. Investing in IT interfaces for sharing and uniform customer accounts today lays the foundation for reliable customer experiences – and for robust KPIs (punctuality, transfer quality, door-to-door time).

3–5-year outlook: From showcase to scaling

1. On-demand becomes part of the regular timetable. Expansion to off-peak times and low-density areas is to be expected, with clear quality indicators (max. waiting time, connection guarantee, utilization). Autonomous shuttles will initially remain limited to test fields, but may improve the cost structure in specific cases once safety and legal frameworks are in place.

2. MaaS is consolidating. Instead of many individual apps, large associations are relying on a strong brand/app with ticketing, best prices, and sharing—the customer interface remains public, with commercial partners connecting via standardized APIs. Examples such as Jelbi, hvv switch, and LeipzigMOVE demonstrate the architecture.

3. Tariff logic is becoming simpler and more digital. Account-based models and check-in/check-out are becoming established; best price billing is becoming the standard expectation – important for occasional users and tourists. Hamburg is already providing blueprints here.

4. Procurement & awarding are moving towards performance-based contracts (output KPIs instead of vehicle/kilometer fixation). This strengthens integrated offers that provide seamless line and on-demand services.